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The Spotted Salamander, Ambystoma maculatum – Part I, Natural History
Overview
Salamanders are not given nearly the attention they deserve by amphibian enthusiasts and consquently, we know far less about their habits and care than we do of their more familian relatives, the frogs. Many species however, do ver well in captivitiy and make long lived (to over 50 years) and responsive pets. A number are brilliantly colored, and all exhibit complex social behaviours and other traits that are easily observed in a properly designed captive habitat. I hope you will check out my book***Newts and Salamandersif you find these creatures as interesting as do I. In contrast to frogs, salamanders reach their greatest diversity in temperate habitats – more species are found in the eastern USA than anywhere else on earth. Today I would like to take a look at the natural history of the spotted salamander – a large, local beauty that makes both an excellent “first salamander” and a fine addition to advanced collections. Next week I’ll cover their care in captivity..
Physical Description
Varies in length from 4 ¾ to 9 ¾ inches. Stoutly built, with a black or slate- colored body marked by irregular rows of brilliant yellow (occasionally orange) spots. Larvae are usually a uniform olive or brown in color with bushy red external gills.
Range and Habitat
Eastern and central North America – from Nova Scotia and central Ontario, Canada south to Georgia and west to eastern Iowa and eastern Texas. They are absent from southern NJ and the Delmarva Peninsula. Isolated populations are still to be found within NYC, on Staten Island and in Queens and the north Bronx.
Spotted salamanders favor deciduous lowland forests and meadows near forest edges and sometimes inhabit woodland patches within suburban areas. Adults require soil into which they can burrow and the fish-less bodies of water for breeding (the larvae are relatively defenseless against fish). Certain populations breed where fishes are present, but only if dense aquatic plant cover is available.
Spotted salamanders are members of the family Ambystomatidae – the mole salamanders. True to this name, the terrestrial adults spend most of their lives below logs or underground in self-excavated burrows or in those dug by mammals such as moles, shrews and field mice. They have been found at depths of 4 feet below ground, and generally forage on the surface only on damp or rainy nights. Spotted salamanders are sensitive to soil pH and avoid acidic soil.
Status in the Wild
Common in some parts of the range and drastically declining in others due to habitat loss – the removal of trees causes the soil to dry, and results in loss of the protective leaf-litter cover needed by this species. The introduction of trout and other game fish to breeding ponds quickly causes local extinctions.
Spotted salamanders typically breed in vernal (temporary) ponds, which are often small in size and only a few inches deep (these lack fish – see above). Unfortunately, such “puddles” are rarely recognized as worthy of protection, and hence are destroyed at a greater rate than are other habitats.
They are also threatened by acid rain and road-salting, both of which change soil and breeding pond pH, killing the larvae and driving off the adults. Protected by several states but not nationally, and not listed by CITES.
Salamanders are not given nearly the attention they deserve by amphibian enthusiasts and consquently, we know far less about their habits and care than we do of their more familian relatives, the frogs. Many species however, do ver well in captivitiy and make long lived (to over 50 years) and responsive pets. A number are brilliantly colored, and all exhibit complex social behaviours and other traits that are easily observed in a properly designed captive habitat. I hope you will check out my book***Newts and Salamandersif you find these creatures as interesting as do I. In contrast to frogs, salamanders reach their greatest diversity in temperate habitats – more species are found in the eastern USA than anywhere else on earth. Today I would like to take a look at the natural history of the spotted salamander – a large, local beauty that makes both an excellent “first salamander” and a fine addition to advanced collections. Next week I’ll cover their care in captivity..
Physical Description
Varies in length from 4 ¾ to 9 ¾ inches. Stoutly built, with a black or slate- colored body marked by irregular rows of brilliant yellow (occasionally orange) spots. Larvae are usually a uniform olive or brown in color with bushy red external gills.
Range and Habitat
Eastern and central North America – from Nova Scotia and central Ontario, Canada south to Georgia and west to eastern Iowa and eastern Texas. They are absent from southern NJ and the Delmarva Peninsula. Isolated populations are still to be found within NYC, on Staten Island and in Queens and the north Bronx.
Spotted salamanders favor deciduous lowland forests and meadows near forest edges and sometimes inhabit woodland patches within suburban areas. Adults require soil into which they can burrow and the fish-less bodies of water for breeding (the larvae are relatively defenseless against fish). Certain populations breed where fishes are present, but only if dense aquatic plant cover is available.
Spotted salamanders are members of the family Ambystomatidae – the mole salamanders. True to this name, the terrestrial adults spend most of their lives below logs or underground in self-excavated burrows or in those dug by mammals such as moles, shrews and field mice. They have been found at depths of 4 feet below ground, and generally forage on the surface only on damp or rainy nights. Spotted salamanders are sensitive to soil pH and avoid acidic soil.
Status in the Wild
Common in some parts of the range and drastically declining in others due to habitat loss – the removal of trees causes the soil to dry, and results in loss of the protective leaf-litter cover needed by this species. The introduction of trout and other game fish to breeding ponds quickly causes local extinctions.
Spotted salamanders typically breed in vernal (temporary) ponds, which are often small in size and only a few inches deep (these lack fish – see above). Unfortunately, such “puddles” are rarely recognized as worthy of protection, and hence are destroyed at a greater rate than are other habitats.
They are also threatened by acid rain and road-salting, both of which change soil and breeding pond pH, killing the larvae and driving off the adults. Protected by several states but not nationally, and not listed by CITES.
The Spotted Salamander, Ambystoma maculatum – Part II, Natural History
Natural Diet
Adults consume a wide variety of prey – earthworms, millipedes, crickets, sow bugs, spiders, centipedes, termites and other invertebrates as well as smaller salamanders. The larvae prey upon zooplankton, dragonfly larvae and other aquatic insects, fairy shrimp, tadpoles, red-spotted newt larvae and each other. Spotted salamanders produce toxic skin secretions but are none-the-less consumed by garter snakes and hog-nosed snakes. Introduced trout, bass, goldfish and other fishes prey upon the larvae and can decimate a population in a single season.
Reproduction
Adults migrate from terrestrial burrows to temporary ponds (vernal pools, swamps, ditches, sluggish streams) in the early spring. The migration is triggered by snow-melt or warm rains, with adults sometimes crossing snow to reach their breeding sites. Males arrive at the ponds 1-6 days before females. I have observed them breeding in Westchester County, NY in mid March, when the water is quite cold. Despite this, I found that food for the larvae, in the form of aquatic insects and fairy shrimp, was abundant.
Large mixed-sex groups form at the pond bottom during courtship. Males deposit a spermatophore (a sperm-filled, jelly-coated capsule) on the pond bottom. The females take this into their cloaca (reproductive opening) and fertilization occurs internally.
The eggs are laid in compact, jelly-covered masses that are attached to twigs, plants or sunken logs. Each mass contains 50-160 eggs. The sight of 20 or more large, brilliantly marked salamanders writhing together in as they vie for breeding rights is really something to see – please write in if you’d like information as to how you might observe this for yourself.
A species of green algae, Oophila amblystomatis, frequently colonizes the egg mass, apparently supplying oxygen to the embryos and utilizing the carbon dioxide that they produce. Larvae from algae-colonized egg masses hatch earlier and exhibit less mortality than do those from algae-free masses.
The adults return to their burrows after breeding. The terrestrial habitat may be 75 – 1,000 feet from the breeding pond.
The larvae hatch in 8-60 days, depending upon water temperature, and have external gills. Transformation to the adult form takes place over a period ranging from 6 weeks to 18 months. In NY, the larvae typically leave the breeding ponds by late July or August, after which the ponds usually dry up.
Miscellaneous
Adult spotted salamanders have lungs but rely largely upon cutaneous respiration (the absorption of oxygen through the skin). The skin must remain moist if this form of respiration is to be effective – they are therefore, limited to damp habitats and rarely appear above ground except after heavy rains. They and other salamanders depend upon protective tree cover, leaf litter and fallen logs to retain soil moisture, and rapidly disappear from degraded habitats.
Onto captive care next time. Until then, please write in with your observations and questions. I’m particularly interested in how this species is doing in the wild, and would greatly appreciate reports of sightings.
Thanks, Frank.
direct link to post: http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2008/07/04/the-spotted-salamander-ambystoma-maculatum-%e2%80%93-part-ii-natural-history/
You can read more about spotted salamander natural history and conservation at:
http://www.globalamphibians.org/
Of course, you can also order my salamander book from That Pet Place (see above) – Thanks!
Adults consume a wide variety of prey – earthworms, millipedes, crickets, sow bugs, spiders, centipedes, termites and other invertebrates as well as smaller salamanders. The larvae prey upon zooplankton, dragonfly larvae and other aquatic insects, fairy shrimp, tadpoles, red-spotted newt larvae and each other. Spotted salamanders produce toxic skin secretions but are none-the-less consumed by garter snakes and hog-nosed snakes. Introduced trout, bass, goldfish and other fishes prey upon the larvae and can decimate a population in a single season.
Reproduction
Adults migrate from terrestrial burrows to temporary ponds (vernal pools, swamps, ditches, sluggish streams) in the early spring. The migration is triggered by snow-melt or warm rains, with adults sometimes crossing snow to reach their breeding sites. Males arrive at the ponds 1-6 days before females. I have observed them breeding in Westchester County, NY in mid March, when the water is quite cold. Despite this, I found that food for the larvae, in the form of aquatic insects and fairy shrimp, was abundant.
Large mixed-sex groups form at the pond bottom during courtship. Males deposit a spermatophore (a sperm-filled, jelly-coated capsule) on the pond bottom. The females take this into their cloaca (reproductive opening) and fertilization occurs internally.
The eggs are laid in compact, jelly-covered masses that are attached to twigs, plants or sunken logs. Each mass contains 50-160 eggs. The sight of 20 or more large, brilliantly marked salamanders writhing together in as they vie for breeding rights is really something to see – please write in if you’d like information as to how you might observe this for yourself.
A species of green algae, Oophila amblystomatis, frequently colonizes the egg mass, apparently supplying oxygen to the embryos and utilizing the carbon dioxide that they produce. Larvae from algae-colonized egg masses hatch earlier and exhibit less mortality than do those from algae-free masses.
The adults return to their burrows after breeding. The terrestrial habitat may be 75 – 1,000 feet from the breeding pond.
The larvae hatch in 8-60 days, depending upon water temperature, and have external gills. Transformation to the adult form takes place over a period ranging from 6 weeks to 18 months. In NY, the larvae typically leave the breeding ponds by late July or August, after which the ponds usually dry up.
Miscellaneous
Adult spotted salamanders have lungs but rely largely upon cutaneous respiration (the absorption of oxygen through the skin). The skin must remain moist if this form of respiration is to be effective – they are therefore, limited to damp habitats and rarely appear above ground except after heavy rains. They and other salamanders depend upon protective tree cover, leaf litter and fallen logs to retain soil moisture, and rapidly disappear from degraded habitats.
Onto captive care next time. Until then, please write in with your observations and questions. I’m particularly interested in how this species is doing in the wild, and would greatly appreciate reports of sightings.
Thanks, Frank.
direct link to post: http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2008/07/04/the-spotted-salamander-ambystoma-maculatum-%e2%80%93-part-ii-natural-history/
You can read more about spotted salamander natural history and conservation at:
http://www.globalamphibians.org/
Of course, you can also order my salamander book from That Pet Place (see above) – Thanks!
The Spotted Salamander, Ambystoma maculatum, – Care in Captivity – Part 1
General
Despite living largely underground in the wild, captive spotted salamanders adjust well to artificial caves and shelters, where they are more easily observed. Well-adjusted captives quickly lose their secretive, nocturnal ways, and will eagerly accept food offered by plastic feeding tongs. If attention is paid to their needs, especially as concerns temperature (see below), these stocky, brilliantly marked salamanders make long-lived and hardy pets.
Space and Other Physical Requirements
If provided with a deep (6-12 inches) substrate, spotted salamanders will establish burrows that will be defended and used consistently. Products such as Zoo Med Eco Earth andR-Zilla Fir/Sphagnum Moss Bedding, with a bit of top soil mixed in, work well as substrates. The surface should be covered with living or dried sheet moss, such as R-Zilla Compressed Frog Moss. You can spot clean this type of set-up or occasionally remove the top layer of substrate – living plants in the terrarium will aid in absorbing the salamander’s waste products.
Another useful tip in maintaining cleanliness is to establish a colony of isopods (sow bugs or pill bugs) in the terrarium. These small crustaceans can easily be collected below rocks and leaf litter. They are excellent salamander food and avidly consume feces, dead insects and decaying moss (a bit of fish flake food added occasionally will keep them in top shape and assure that they reproduce).
Land snails are also excellent scavengers, and both they and isopods are fascinating creatures in their own rights. Snails usually reproduce readily in captivity, and small specimens will be eagerly devoured by spotted salamanders.
A single adult spotted salamander requires an enclosure of approximately the size of a 10 gallon aquarium.
Spotted salamanders may also be kept in ventilated sweater boxes on sheet moss or paper towels. Each animal should be provided an individual artificial cave or cork bark shelter.
Light, Heat and Humidity
Spotted salamanders favor cool temperatures, retreating far below-ground during the summer months. They do best at 60-70 F, and are stressed by temperatures over 76 F. Cool basements make ideal sites for their terrariums, especially during the summer months. My own basement maintains an air temperature of 50-54 F in the winter, during which time the salamanders continue to feed. The drop in temperature is good for their health, and helps to maintain normal activity patterns and to spur breeding.
Breathing largely through their skin, spotted salamanders require moist conditions – their terrarium should be misted with de-chlorinated (not distilled) water daily. Free-living adults rarely enter water other than for breeding, but a shallow, easily-exited water bowl will be utilized by captives.
Humidity should not be raised by covering the terrarium with plastic – salamanders require circulating air and should be housed in screen-covered enclosures. In stagnant air conditions, temperatures rise and fungus often attacks the skin.
Spotted salamanders do not require a UVB light source. If you keep live plants in the terrarium, be sure to use a low output UVB bulb, such as the Reptisun 2.0, as too much UVB can damage the eyes of these and other amphibians. Check also that the bulb does not cause temperatures to spike.
If you keep your salamanders in an unlit basement, it is a good idea to provide a light cycle for them in the form of a weak room light or fluorescent tank light. They will do fine in complete darkness, but a day/night period is preferable, especially if you plan on breeding your animals.
Check back next Monday for the conclusion of this article. The image above is referenced from the Spotted Salamander entry on Wikipedia.
direct link to post: http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2008/07/11/the-spotted-salamander-ambystoma-maculatum-%e2%80%93-care-in-captivity-part-1/
Until Next Time,
Frank
Despite living largely underground in the wild, captive spotted salamanders adjust well to artificial caves and shelters, where they are more easily observed. Well-adjusted captives quickly lose their secretive, nocturnal ways, and will eagerly accept food offered by plastic feeding tongs. If attention is paid to their needs, especially as concerns temperature (see below), these stocky, brilliantly marked salamanders make long-lived and hardy pets.
Space and Other Physical Requirements
If provided with a deep (6-12 inches) substrate, spotted salamanders will establish burrows that will be defended and used consistently. Products such as Zoo Med Eco Earth andR-Zilla Fir/Sphagnum Moss Bedding, with a bit of top soil mixed in, work well as substrates. The surface should be covered with living or dried sheet moss, such as R-Zilla Compressed Frog Moss. You can spot clean this type of set-up or occasionally remove the top layer of substrate – living plants in the terrarium will aid in absorbing the salamander’s waste products.
Another useful tip in maintaining cleanliness is to establish a colony of isopods (sow bugs or pill bugs) in the terrarium. These small crustaceans can easily be collected below rocks and leaf litter. They are excellent salamander food and avidly consume feces, dead insects and decaying moss (a bit of fish flake food added occasionally will keep them in top shape and assure that they reproduce).
Land snails are also excellent scavengers, and both they and isopods are fascinating creatures in their own rights. Snails usually reproduce readily in captivity, and small specimens will be eagerly devoured by spotted salamanders.
A single adult spotted salamander requires an enclosure of approximately the size of a 10 gallon aquarium.
Spotted salamanders may also be kept in ventilated sweater boxes on sheet moss or paper towels. Each animal should be provided an individual artificial cave or cork bark shelter.
Light, Heat and Humidity
Spotted salamanders favor cool temperatures, retreating far below-ground during the summer months. They do best at 60-70 F, and are stressed by temperatures over 76 F. Cool basements make ideal sites for their terrariums, especially during the summer months. My own basement maintains an air temperature of 50-54 F in the winter, during which time the salamanders continue to feed. The drop in temperature is good for their health, and helps to maintain normal activity patterns and to spur breeding.
Breathing largely through their skin, spotted salamanders require moist conditions – their terrarium should be misted with de-chlorinated (not distilled) water daily. Free-living adults rarely enter water other than for breeding, but a shallow, easily-exited water bowl will be utilized by captives.
Humidity should not be raised by covering the terrarium with plastic – salamanders require circulating air and should be housed in screen-covered enclosures. In stagnant air conditions, temperatures rise and fungus often attacks the skin.
Spotted salamanders do not require a UVB light source. If you keep live plants in the terrarium, be sure to use a low output UVB bulb, such as the Reptisun 2.0, as too much UVB can damage the eyes of these and other amphibians. Check also that the bulb does not cause temperatures to spike.
If you keep your salamanders in an unlit basement, it is a good idea to provide a light cycle for them in the form of a weak room light or fluorescent tank light. They will do fine in complete darkness, but a day/night period is preferable, especially if you plan on breeding your animals.
Check back next Monday for the conclusion of this article. The image above is referenced from the Spotted Salamander entry on Wikipedia.
direct link to post: http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2008/07/11/the-spotted-salamander-ambystoma-maculatum-%e2%80%93-care-in-captivity-part-1/
Until Next Time,
Frank
NEWTS AND SALAMANDERS ~ THE BOOK
New Edition of Newts and Salamanders, A Complete Pet Owner’s Manual, is Published
Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. I’ve recently finished writing a revision of my 1997 book Newts and Salamanders and would like to introduce it here and to thank everyone for their past support and kind comments.
Care and Natural History
Although technically a captive care manual, I’ve included a great deal of natural history information garnered from a lifetime of working with amphibians as well as research updates from technical and popular journals. Captive breeding is stressed, with specific advice given for each species covered.
There are also chapters on classification, senses and behavior, terrarium set-up and maintenance (ranging from basic to highly complex, planted exhibits and outdoor enclosures) nutrition, collecting and rearing food animals, health care and obtaining specimens.
Photos
The book is illustrated with 80 new, brilliant photographs, the majority taken by friend and Herp World legend Dick Bartlett. Others are the work of Zig Leszczynski, whose lifetime of contributions to the field cannot be overstated.
Photos of rarely seen species abound – the Flatwoods, Texas Blind, Spring, Anderson’s, Red-Cheeked, Painted Ensatina, Scott’s Barr and Red-Legged Salamander – to name a few.
Scope
The species covered in detail range from pet trade staples through US natives that rarely appear in the trade but are none-the-less well suited to terrarium life. Also included are a number of salamanders that are at present seen only in the collections of advanced hobbyists.
Following is a small sample of the Newts and Salamanders that are discussed at length:
Eastern Newt
Mexican Axolotl
Olm
Tiger, Spotted and Marbled Salamanders
Hellbender
Lesser and Dwarf Siren
Red-Backed Salamander
Mudpuppy
Fire Salamander
One, Two and Three Toed Amphiumas
California Newt
Fire Bellied Newt
Dusky Salamander
Spanish Ribbed Newt
Northern Red Salamander
I would greatly appreciate any commnets or suggestions you might have.
Thanks, until next time,
Frank Indiviglio
Barred Tiger Salamander image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by OpenCage
Red-backed Salamander image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Brian Gratwicke
Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. I’ve recently finished writing a revision of my 1997 book Newts and Salamanders and would like to introduce it here and to thank everyone for their past support and kind comments.
Care and Natural History
Although technically a captive care manual, I’ve included a great deal of natural history information garnered from a lifetime of working with amphibians as well as research updates from technical and popular journals. Captive breeding is stressed, with specific advice given for each species covered.
There are also chapters on classification, senses and behavior, terrarium set-up and maintenance (ranging from basic to highly complex, planted exhibits and outdoor enclosures) nutrition, collecting and rearing food animals, health care and obtaining specimens.
Photos
The book is illustrated with 80 new, brilliant photographs, the majority taken by friend and Herp World legend Dick Bartlett. Others are the work of Zig Leszczynski, whose lifetime of contributions to the field cannot be overstated.
Photos of rarely seen species abound – the Flatwoods, Texas Blind, Spring, Anderson’s, Red-Cheeked, Painted Ensatina, Scott’s Barr and Red-Legged Salamander – to name a few.
Scope
The species covered in detail range from pet trade staples through US natives that rarely appear in the trade but are none-the-less well suited to terrarium life. Also included are a number of salamanders that are at present seen only in the collections of advanced hobbyists.
Following is a small sample of the Newts and Salamanders that are discussed at length:
Eastern Newt
Mexican Axolotl
Olm
Tiger, Spotted and Marbled Salamanders
Hellbender
Lesser and Dwarf Siren
Red-Backed Salamander
Mudpuppy
Fire Salamander
One, Two and Three Toed Amphiumas
California Newt
Fire Bellied Newt
Dusky Salamander
Spanish Ribbed Newt
Northern Red Salamander
I would greatly appreciate any commnets or suggestions you might have.
Thanks, until next time,
Frank Indiviglio
Barred Tiger Salamander image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by OpenCage
Red-backed Salamander image referenced from wikipedia and originally posted by Brian Gratwicke
Frank Indiviglio "Newts and Salamanders: a Complete Pet Owner's Manual", 1997, Barron's Educational Series.
Review at Caudata.com
Of all of the beginner's books that I have read, this is one of the most accurate and easier to read. The author gives good basic information about maintaining animals in captivity and he describes a number of different species, along with their specific needs. Frank Indiviglio shows that he has a great deal of practical knowledge of Caudates and this book is a good buy for anyone new to the hobby looking for a book that covers a lot of salamanders. 8/10 - (JC)
Review at Amazon.com
Great Book, 13 Jan 2009 By M. Kearney (Northern Ireland)
Newts and Salamanders (Complete Pet Owner's Manual) (Paperback) A very good book filled with a lot of informative text. Also has a great section on identfying behaviour and illnesses. Leans somewhat towards being more of a salamander book than a newt book but still very good all the same. Also arrived within about thirty hours of ordering!
Newts and Salamanders
Review at Caudata.com
Of all of the beginner's books that I have read, this is one of the most accurate and easier to read. The author gives good basic information about maintaining animals in captivity and he describes a number of different species, along with their specific needs. Frank Indiviglio shows that he has a great deal of practical knowledge of Caudates and this book is a good buy for anyone new to the hobby looking for a book that covers a lot of salamanders. 8/10 - (JC)
Review at Amazon.com
Great Book, 13 Jan 2009 By M. Kearney (Northern Ireland)
Newts and Salamanders (Complete Pet Owner's Manual) (Paperback) A very good book filled with a lot of informative text. Also has a great section on identfying behaviour and illnesses. Leans somewhat towards being more of a salamander book than a newt book but still very good all the same. Also arrived within about thirty hours of ordering!
Newts and Salamanders
